-Born in Austria
-favorite of mom.
-couldn't b/c great minister/general
like he wanted b/c he was Jewish
-studied medicine under Ernst Bruke
->had physical theory of 'conservation or energy'
->infl.
Freud’s theory of psych. conservation of energy.
-Freud started researching neurology - i.e. comparing fetal and
adult brain.
-->thought that original structures remain the same -->later deb.
into his psych theories
-Jean charcot - psychiatrist who helped neurotics w/ hypnosis
-->Freud spent a year w/ him
Freud's terms:
Catharsis: release of emotional feeling through talking one's problems
-->early technique - b/f psychoanalysis
Free Association: thoughts expressed w/o inhibitions/falsifications
-->led to the book interpretation of dreams
Death instinct:
a wish to die - in opposition to life instinct (wish for survival)
-1905
-relation b/w sexuality and perversions/neurosis
-caused a lot of noise
-dealt w/ anti-sematism
->a/s towards J = misplaced
->Moses- who gave the law = egyptian
Person = energy system
->if not used in one way, it would be used in another!
-i.e. if used
for cultural purposes, it wont be used for sexual purposes any more.
-goal of b/h = pleasure!
->if
blocked from 1 channel, if would be used in another
Freud:
Humans have sexual/aggression/life/death drives
-aggression/death drives ->theory
dev. after WWI
Pleasure principle: unbridled gratification drive
->problem: it is against social standards
->therefore, it is channeled into symbolic
ways, i.e. arts
Modern research: suppression of exciting thoughts (i.e. sex)
->when they occasionally surge into consciousness, they cause more excitation that those not suppressing those thoughts
->suppression is also a factor in negative
emotional responses/phobias/obsessions
-only lately did psych use scientific methods, and not only analysts' observations
Freud: psychoanalysts should focus on uncovering the unconscious
->much
energy is spent expressing unconscious forces ->infl. b/h
Levels of unconsciousness:
Unconscious is
1) Alogical -opposites can exist
2) Disregards time - things of diff. time periods can coexist
3) Disregards space: - diff size/distance relationships are neglected
4) Symbolization
-much of our b/h is motivated by unconscious
->thoughts/feelings/memories exists in our unconscious
->if we'd be aware of them -->anxiety/guilt
->i.e. having sex w/ forbidden person
->therefore, in pursuit of pleasure/avoidance of pain, we repress them
-
Ways to express our underlying unconscious motives:
=everything must be studies indirectly - never directly observed
-i.e.
hypnosis - to get people to recall previously forgotten
things
Post-hypnotic suggestion =acting w/o knowing that they are behaving
out of suggestion
->they’re sure that it is a voluntary
act
Catharsis =sudden
emotional outburst when recalling a hidden memory -shows unconscious
emotional pain.
Experimental proofs (as opposed to observational proofs)
1) perception w/o awareness -i.e. subliminal perception
->stimuli registered yet too low for
awareness
Example:
-2 groups shown quick flash of a tree
->1 of them, the branches shaped into a duck
->>then asked to draw a nature picture
->the duck branches of tree: more pictures related to ducks
->even if they couldn't make out the duck unless pointed out to them.
->Perception w/o awareness
->unconsious!
Perceptual defense:
-Neutral vs. sexual words flashing fast ->slowing down until they could be recognized
-sweat glands also measures
->showed emotional response b/f they recognized word
->selective
respond/reject stimuli ->unconscious?
2) Subliminal psychodynamic activation
Experiment #1
-Showing quickly flashing conflict/reassuring messages
->i.e.
showing females: ‘loving dad is ok/wrong’
-effects psych disturbance ->even though it was flashed so fast that it was only subliminally perceived.
-women w/ eating disorder subliminally shown either
-in 2nd case, more
crackers eaten.
->subliminal
effect on the unconscious ->led to unconscious motivation on b/h
-Some non-psychoanalytical
psych’s: still, some acts are conscious –not everything is unconscious
Psychoanalytical unconscious: irrational/illogical/involved in repressed though
Cognitive unconscious: still, no diff. b/w unconscious/unconscious cognitive though.
->focus on non-motivated
i.e.
Freud -1923
Id: drive energy –pursuit of pleasure/avoidance of pain
Ego: satisfy id w/ reality and superego in mind –uses reality principle
Superego: morality
–tries to control b/h
Reality principle:
-Gratifying the instincts is delayed until most of the pleasure could be obtained w/ least pain/negative consequences.
->i.e.
id is delayed/locked/diverted
->temporary suspension of the pleasure
principle
Freud: ego =weak structure, which serves 3 masters:
-relationship is like a rider
on a horse –it usually controls horse, but sometimes, it has to navigate
the horse where it wants to go
Later theories:
-Ego has its own power: it could achieve pleasure by merely creating a conflict-free environment
->Called competence motivation
Anna Freud:
Dev. the concept of ego ->’ego
psychology’
Pleasure – could also be achieved in the conflict-resolution of the ego
->ego has a drive-energy of its own and will give pleasure in mastery of the environment
-> ‘competence motivation’
(white)
Modern measures of ego:
- Expression of energy: drives or instincts
-->constant/inescapable
forces
-->both aggressive/death
instincts are associated w/ id
-during daily life, instincts have to be:
-dynamic aspect of psychoanalytical
theory: interplay b/w inhibition/expression of instincts
Anxiety: pain associated w/ threat/danger to person, where external danger is unknown
-->i.e. threat to ego.
-->i.e. if previous trauma (i.e. situation/punishment) is or isn’t remembered
-->as opposed to fear – external
tension in known
Defense mechanism – way to deal w/ anxiety
-->i.e.projecting traits you unconsciously hate about yourself to others
Growth and Development
Primary process: unconscious thinking: where reality and fantasy is indistinguishable
Secondary process:
conscious thinking/reality testing ->ego/superego
Epstein:
Experiential thinking: thinking that is based on feelings/experience
->associated w/ primary thinking ->associated
w/intuitive/interpersonal situations
Rational thinking: based on intellect
->Associated w/ secondary thinking
->thought of as a later evolutionary
way of thinking
-conflict /w 2 systems ->i.e.
intuition vs. rational choices
-ind. diff. in h.m each is available in each situation
-Instincts – imp. in the psychoanalytical theory
-source of instincts: bodily tensions in certain regions of body
->Erogenous zones
-life
-through the biologically determined dev., there are determined erogenous zones
-early gratification: feeding/sucking/etc.
-adult extensions: smoking/kissing/eating/chewing gum
-phrases like food for thought/regurgitate
-ages 2-3:
-movement of feces through
anal:
-holding off pleasure of relief for avoidance of (social) punishment
->decision
– element of control
phallic stage
-age: 4-5
-differentiation of sexes leads
to psych. differentiations ->i.e. genitals
Males in phallic state
->castration anxiety: fear that dad will castrate kid
->affection for mom is rivaled to dad. (Oedipus complex)
->Oedipus
complex: fantasy of killing dad and marrying mom
study: subliminal messages neutralizing the oedipal conflict (beating dad =ok)
->better dart score ->infl. ok unconscious motivational state
Females in phallic state
Penis envy: female
loves dad –thinks her ‘missing’ organ will be restored by having
child w/ dad
->in boy, Oedipal complex is abandoned by kid b/c castration anxiety
->in
girl, penis envy starts off oedipal complex
Identification: as a resolution to the conflict, the kid identifies w/ the parent of the same sex.
->assuming of roles/values/actions
-Freud: all major aspects
of our personality stem from the oral/anal/phallic stages
Latency stage:
-b/w 6 and 13, there are no
new dev. in gratification of instincts
Genital stage
-onset of puberty
-all unresolved issues of previous stages come back to haunt us now.
->this accounts for at least some of
adolescence probs.
Freud: healthy person: successful progression through stages
-More focus on psychosocial stages (unlike Freud’s sex-orientation)
i.e.:
Marcia: identity formation theory
4 possibilities:
->high achievement/moral reasoning. Resistant to group manipulation
->though still struggling w/ who they are (identity)
->rigid/give into social pressure for conformity.
Erikson’s Eight psychosocial stages of dev and heir implications | |||
| Psychosocial stage | Age | Positive outcome | Negative outcome |
| Basic Trust vs. Basic mistrust | 1 | -Feeling of inner
goodness/others
-optimism |
-sense of badness/mistrust
of self/others
pessimism |
| Autonomy vs. shame/doubt | 2-3 | -Exercise of will
-self control -able to make choices |
-rigid
-Excessive conscience -doubtful -self-conscious shame |
| Initiation vs. guilt | 4-5 | -pleasure in accomplishment/activity/
direction/purpose |
-Guilt at goals contemplated/achievements contemplated |
| Industry vs. interiority | Latency | Able to be absorbed in productive work | -Sense of inadequacy/inferiority
-unable to finish work |
| Identity vs. confusion of roles | Adolescence | -confidence of
inner sameness and continuity.
-promise of a career |
-Ill at ease in
roles
-no set standards -sense of artificiality |
| Intimacy vs. isolation | Early adulthood | Mutually sharing
of:
Thoughts/work/feelings |
-Avoidance of
intimacy
-Superficial relationships |
| Fertility vs. ‘congealation’ | Adulthood | -Ability to lose oneself in work/relationship | -Loss of interest
in work
-impoverished relations |
| Ego-completion vs. despair | Later Years | Sense of order/meaning/content w/ self/achievements | Fear of death/bitter
about life
->what he got from it/didn’t happen |
Erikson’s main new ideas:
Early experiences: isolated incidents not as imp as repeated incidents
->intensity of incident is also relevant
Chapter 4
Personality tests include:
projective tests
Projective tests:
ambiguous stimuli which is interpreted in a certain way by the participant
Emphasis on:
->allows for complete freedom of content/organization
->look at all the pictures interpreted – not one
-series of 10 inkblots
->participants asked to explain what they see in the inkblot
->tells examiners how person think/organizes
things
i.e.: poorly
related answer: fantasies/bizarre b/h
->things could be understood symbolically.
->i.e. 1 person explaining a inkblot
as animals fighting/other: 2 people sharing
Other examples:
Explosion: aggression
->another
indicator: b/h during responding.
Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)
-some abstract pictures/others, of 2 or more people in an important situation
->reveals inhibited tendencies/unconscious
Uses include:
Fixation: being stuck in a certain stage b/c too little or much gratification in that stage, so the kid is not able or willing to move on
-->oral/anal/phallic
Regression: return to the earlier mode of gratification
-fixation on the oral stage of dev.
-->always seeking something,
whether aggressively or modestly
-narcissistic -->only think of themselves
-->others
seen only in terms of what they can give (feed)
Resolved oral stage:
I get
Anal personality
-unlike oral, must repress
anal impulses
Important issues that anal impulses stem from:
Anal triad:
-change from the oral to anal:
-->
‘give me’ --> ‘I must obey you’
Resolved anal stage: I control
-partial resolution of Oedipus
complex
males:
-will try to prove that they haven’t been castrated: ‘I am a man’
-->will try to look big.
-->excessively exhibitionistic
women: hysterical personality:
-as a young girl – ove-identity w/ mom/femininity
-naively flirt, not realizing their sexual intent
-->to maintain dad’s love
-->surprised to realize darker side
| Personality type | Personality characteristics |
Oral |
|
Anal |
|
Phallic |
|
-Conflict b/w drive (i.e. anxiety/sex)
and anxiety (i.e. fear of consequences)
Neurosis: conflict b/w id and ego
-->instincts and reality
-->defense mechanisms
move conflict to unconscious -->could lead to neurosis
Sympton: paralysis/compulsion,
which expresses a repressed impulse
Cathartic hypnosis: alleviates neurotic b/h by releasing blocked emotion
->didn’t
like it, since not all are susceptale to hypnosis
Dreams: using free association, one can go beyond the manifest content of dream
-Freud:
dreams, like symptoms, are ways to partially express drives
-at first, freud thought that all you need in to uncover unconsciousness to relive tension of unconscious
->then, freud realized that there is more to recovery than just uncovering unconscious ->you also need emotional/conflict insight
‘individual
psychology’
‘feeling of inferiority’ = weakness in 1 organ – i.e. stuttering
‘Compensatory striving’
= mask/reduce pain
diff. w/ Freud: aggressive women:
Style of life:
way to cope w/ feeling ->b/c part of personality
Will to power:
way to cope w/ feeling of hopelessness from infancy
Striving for superiority:
Social interest:
-Innate interest relating
to people/cooperation:
Freud: Bio
Adler: social/conscious
Carl Jung:
-thought freud put too much emphasis on sex
->made own school called analytical psych.
-libido also strives from pleasure/creativity.
Jung: beyond unconscious
is a collective unconscious
Collective unconscious: shared by all b/c of collective ancestry
->also
called mother types
other jung theories
-struggle b/w opposing forces
Jung: lifelong struggle to bring opposing forces to harmony
-unlike Jung/Adler –didn’t
reject Freud
-diff. from Freud:
->neurosis: faulty way
to deal w/ it
3 way neurotic trends
->all
3 characterize lack of fulfillment of potential
‘feminine psychology’
-women are not as freud thought
->masochism in women is not bio but culturally dev.
->much
more open change to change than Freud thought.
Sullivan: ‘interpersonal theory of psychiatry’ –1953
-early mom/child experience –imp. Fro dev. of anxiety/sense of self
-self dev. from reflected appraisals
->reflected appraisals:
how I perceive others think of me
2 important stages
->reputation/social acceptance b/c imp. Source of anxiety/self-esteem
->best
friend: paradigm for opposite sex relationship
object relation theory
-person tries to dev. a sense of self and protect it.
–>self
esteem is vulnerable
-obj = people
Question of the theory:
-how does past experience infl.
present
Emphasis: more on drive
to have relationships and people then sexuality
Narcissism/narcissistic personality
kohert/kernberg
-Disturbance in sense of self/self-esteem
-->sense of worthlessness/powerlessness
-->yet sense of grandiose/self importance
-->preoccupied w/ maintaining self-esteem
-more negativity to failure --i.e.
anger
Exaggerated sense of:
-critical evaluation
-evaluates own performance
better than peers
Narcissistic Personality Inventory (NPI)
-questionnaire measuring Narcissism
-bowlby
-ainsworth
Bowlby: 'attachment behavioral system' (ABS)
-child goes through phases in dev. of attachment to primary caregiver
-->uses
this attachment as a secure base
'internal working model'
-infant dev. mental representation of self/primary caregiver
-->based on interactional
experience
-emphasis on early relationships
'strange situation procedure'
-mom leaves and then returns
-->see
how kid behaves
Freud |
Structure |
|
Process |
|
Growth/dev |
|
Pathology |
|
Change |
|
Illustrative case |
|
-how person sees himself/world around him
->i.e. Rogers
->Gives
value to the concept of self and its experience.
Phenomenal field: individual’s unique way of perception
Self: total system
of experiences/perceptions
Rogers’ ‘self’
Ideal self: the self-concept that I’d like to have
-dev. by Stephenson in 1953
-take (usually) 100 cards w/ statements about a personality trait
-i.e.
‘makes friends easily’
-make piles from least to most representing of me w/ middle pile (‘somewhat me’) –most cards
2-4-8-11-16-18-16-11-8-4-2
-could also be used to measure
ideal self and the diff. b/w self and ideal self
Gender diff:
-w/ time, males b/c more self-confident and females –less confident
->i.e. rate ‘myself’ vs. ‘my college’
->higher diff = higher dissatisfaction
Perhaps: many diff. selves at diff times
Freud: emphasizes fixed elements of the personality
Rogers: personality
structure = relative ->changes w/ time
Rogers: people/personality strives to move forward
->‘self-actualization’
-enjoyment/pleasure from activities
which enhance the organism
Recent dev
-multifaceted cencept of mental health which includes
-all were incorporated into ‘personal growth scale’
-person strives to maintain self-structure
->not avoid pain/gain pleasure
-if my self is diff. in diff roles (i.e. father/son/worker)
->my core role is not as integrated
->more
problematic
->goes
well w/ Rogers’ hypothesis
i.e. to feel cruel, yet view oneself as nice = incongruent
-diff b/w perceived and experience (actual) self
->leads to anxiety
Subception: defense
from self from the anxiety of the incongruence
2 kinds of defensive processes
Cherdiff: slower to remember things threatening to self
Cartwright: better recall of congruent words.
Rogers: we have a need for positive regard
-if a child is imposed
conditions of worth he will deny experiences: rift b/w experiences
and self
-but if child is given
‘unconditional positive regard’ he won’t need to
deny experiences
Rogers: natural growth
(self-actualization) lies intrinsically in all organisms
-if need for positive regards by others b/c more important than being in touch w/ own feelings -> screening of experiences
->leads
to incongruence
-for a kid: when doing something bad: there is a diff. b/w being told that he did something bad and the he is bad
Studies show:
Democratic parents:
Authoritarian parents
critical!!!!:
-kids’ perception of parents’ appraisal is the important thing – not their actual appraisals
->positive/negative appraisals of parent’s appraisals infl. how the kids see themselves
->self-acceptance
Rogers: higher self-esteem: more creativity/less accepting of norms/values unless consistent w/ their observations!
-origins of self worth/self esteem: original home environment
->reflected appraisals:
how the opinions of important others are
Parental attitude factors which infl.:
-more democratic – still has limits!
->yet non-coercive w/I the rules
-reorganized
rights of the student – higher self-esteem
-more authoritarian: less defined rules
->more
rejecting/dictatorial/uncomprom
->lower self-esteem
3 conditions for origins of self-esteem
->could
merely be the kids’ perception!
Rogers:
-if parent-child interaction stresses freedom/security
->more security later in life
Some say: self-esteem is not global but rather specific to situations
->could have self-esteem in academics but not in social situations
People have one of 2 views:
-each view is specific to a
trait
Client-oriented therapy: client is not dependant but a responsible client
->therapy just helps clear obstacles for self-actualization
Self-experience discrepancy
-healthy person: open to experience: no threat to self-structure
->no defensiveness
-Defenses (denial/distortion) -lead to self-experience discrepancy
-self-experience discrepancy occurs when defenses try to maintain wholeness of self/positive self-regard
->i.e. that all girls like him
-i.e.
improper/forbidden thoughts are other person’s fault
Important distinction-perceptions
excluded b/c they are contradictory – not derogatory!!!
Defenses – are not as important to Roger as to Freud
Rogers:
psych. pathology: problems b/w self concept
and experiences
Other research: focuses also on actual self and ideal self
->bigger discrepancy = more problem
-modern dev, of Rogers
There is:
Discrepancy b/w actual self and:
-Sometimes, there is a conflict b/w the two:
Recent research |
|
Rogers: therapy needs to bring change!
-at first, Rogers thought that therapist = nondirective
->his clients thought that it was too
passive!
->then
Rogers changes to client-centered approach
3 elements essential to the therapist
->Really,
could be applied to any school of therapy
Studies show: more therapy
success w/ warmer therapy climate
Rogers:
->belief in the capacity of client to grow
->finding out stuff that client feels about himself ->unconscious things don’t reflect client’s view of himself!
-if-then theory
->if certain conditions are applied then
a certain process will occur.
2 shifts in Rogers’ life:
->felt
that success came faster
Lately:-renewed interest in concept of self (after Rogers in the 70’s)
i.e.:
->yet they are more cognitive
->not
so much like Rogers ->more cognitive -> speak of a less global self than Rogers
Yet:
global self-esteem = more predictive of person’s reactions to succe3ss/failure
than specific self-esteem
->Researchers
agree w/ Rogers: Self-esteem is unconditional affect for oneself, regardless
of perception of having any particular positive qualities
Other recent developments:
Authenticity:
-How Much one acts like self
vs. other false self-representations
Studies: more genuine
and self-expressive = more extraverted/agreeable/conscient
Conclusion:
-Variant b/h across situations
= fine as long as feeling authentic with oneself
Deci/Ryan:
Self-determination
theory: people have an inherent need to act out in autonomous
self-determinant way to do things that are intrinsically good for them
and not be forces by internal or external forces
2 critical elements
->note:
feeling guilty = compelled from w/I!!!!!
| ->just like chapter 5: -internal motivation (out of intent) vs. -extrinsic motivation (i.e. for a reward) |
-autonomous actions: more persistent
->associated w/ better health/well-being
Carver/Baird:
it is the quality of motivation – not the actual goal that is important!
-in Asia ->not as self-determinant as N.A. Kids
Rogers | |
Strengths |
Limitations |
|
->making observations that are totally free of bias/preconception |
-For Rogers, neurosis stems from incongruence
->school of thought which Rogers was a part of
->this school of thought was seen as
an alternative to psychoanalysis/behaviorism
-school of thought also included:
-neurologist/psychiatrist
| ||||||||||
Goldstein: feels that Freud: knows ‘lust of release – not pleasure of tension’
->Motive for people could also be self-actualization
->All what we do, from eating to loftiest creation –is to achieve self-actualization
-unlike behaviorist/psychoanalysis,
the human potential movement assumes that humans are intrinsically good
Maslow: people should
be free to express themselves w/o societal obstacles
Self actualization
↑
Esteem
↑
Belonging
↑
Safety
↑
Physiological
Csikszurmihalyi
Flow: positive states of consciousness
i.e.
->occurs
in activities like hobbies/sports/social interactions
Existentialism
Existentialism: concern w/ existence – the person in the human condition
-->some
things are basic/fundamental to the human existence
Existential focus on:
-need for someone to listen/understand in a hostile, impersonal world
-->to
drop outer shell
Victor Frankl:
-psychiatrist
-existential seeking of meaning
-->w/o
will to meaning = neurosis
Meaning = spiritually
rooted
Neurosis = escape from responsibility/freedom
-->blame
destiny/childhood/fate/environm
Logotherapy:
-way to help existential neurosis
-->making them realize:
Criticism of existentialism
Studies show:
Other studies show:
-Many selves
-->if
they are integrated (coherence), then it fits the consistent self
Cultural diff.:
In eastern cultures: self = more socially integrated
In western cultures: self = more individually centered
In both Freud/Rogers: defense = reduces anxiety
Freud: experiences
from the past do indeed bring anxiety!!!
Rogers: appears to emphasize pain of loss of positive regard, yet his main focus is congruency.
->incl. disregarding positive experiences for the maintaining of Self-concept
-->yet accepting negative characteristics
consistent w/ Self-concept
Psychopathology and change
Psychopathology
Rogers = lack of congruence
b/w experience and self
-->yet unclear b/c paranoid
schizophrenic has unrealistically high self-esteem (self)
and high congruence, yet has a lot of defensiveness
-->perhaps, not satisfactory measure
(ideal/self discrepancy)
Rogers |
Structure |
|
Process |
|
Growth/Dev |
| -Congruence/self-actualization vs. incongruence/defensiveness |
Pathology |
| -Defensive maintenance of self/incongruence |
Change |
| -Therapeutic
atmosphere/congruence/unconditi |
Illustrative case |
| -Mrs. Oak. |
Trait: consistent pattern of how people act/feel/think
-Focus on human/healthy/organized thought
->based
on nervous system, which set the general trends across situations
3 properties of personality
Trait |
States |
Activities |
| Gentle | Infatuated | Carousing |
| Domineering | Please | Ranting |
| Trustful | Angry | Snooping |
| Timid | Invigorated | Leering |
| Cunning | Aroused | Reveling |
-trait = what a person is generally
like – not in specific cases
Functional autonomy: though roots of motives (tension-reduction) of adults lie in kids’ motives, they have b/c independent
-->at first = reduction of anxiety/hunger
-->later, this effort b/c pleasure at its own right
-->what was instrumental b/c intrinsic
Idiographic research: study of individuals
-->emphasis on self’s structure and organization, unrelated to others
-->as opposed to statistics
Examples:
-->sometimes = more
imp. to know what is more imp for a person, rather than to see his values
compared to others.
Allport:
-person could have conflicting dispositions
-many traits play in each b/h
Three-factor theory
of Hans J. Eysenck
-Trait measurement:
factor analysis
Factor analysis:
a statistical method for determining which variable decrease or increase
together -->used in development of personality and some trait theories
Superfactor: higher order of organization of traits than those derived from initial factors derived from factor analysis
Eysenck: 2 dimension scales of personality:
-2 extremes – introversion/extroversion
-->on one plain towards each other = unstable traits
-->on other = stable traits
Neuroticism
includes:
Later, he included another dimension: psychoticism
Eysenck’s 2-factor theory
of personality: PEN: Psychoticism/Extroversion
Maudsley/Eysenck personality
inventories -->tests to check introversion
| Introverts | Extroverts |
|
|
|
|
Extroverts:
-introverts – more aroused/learn inhibitions faster
-->more restraint/inhibited
-some bio/genetic origin for introversion/extroversion
-->brain
activity/heart rate/hormone levels/sweat-gland activity
Eysenck –infl. of bio:
Neuroticism: nervous system more sensitive. by stress/slower calming down after danger is gone (than people w/ lower on neuroticism)
Psychoticism: also somewhat infl by genetics
-->Especially
in relationship to maleness
-->personality – effected by genes
Abnormal reaction:
=biological factors + learning
of strong emotional reaction to a fear-producing stimuli
-therefore:
-->though there is genetic
influences on b/h, there is still ability to change -->learnt b/h
skills/undo learned b/h
Eysenck’s criticism of psychoanalysis school:
-->psychoanalysis only
successful when learning therapy unintentionally involved
Factor-analytic trait approach –Richmond Cattell
3 methods of study of personality
-->no manipulation of variables!
-->factor analysis =is here!
-->looking for the natural setting
-multivariate and clinical both look for global and not fragmented patterns of b/h
-->though thought that clinical is not as 100% clear as multivariate
-->not
enough scientific rigor
Factor analysis: to see which variables go up or down together (correlate)
Kinds of traits:
2 kinds of groupings
Distinction #1
Sources of data: L-data/d-data/OT-data
L-data: Life-event-data ->rating by observer/peers
->objective as well as subjective sources
->i.e.
b/h in everyday life
Q-data:
Questionnaire-data ->based on self-report
OT-Data: Objective Test:
-> i.e. miniature life situations:
->
i.e. experiments: person is not aware of relationship b/w reaction and
trait measured
-Cattell uses factor-analysis
to see which traits are really together or even the same
Catell’s results:
->based on thousands of questionnaires
->included:
Questionnaires: =limited =could deceived by respondents
Life stories: limited = not applicable to mental patients
-12 of the 16 Q-test traits – could be correlated w/ the L-test traits
->the other 4 traits are unique to the
Q-test
Stability/variability in B/h
Erg: innate tendencies i.e. security/sex/self-assertion
Sentiments: environmentally
determined motives
Illustrative sentiments:
Self-sentiments:
-‘I want never to damage my self-respect’
Sentiments: usually help satisfy more basic ergs/biological needs
-states/roles also effect b/h
->Beyond motivational factors
State
State: mood
->in specific cases (vs. traits: general tendency)
->it
is transient
-emotions/mood-changes ->infl. b/hust as much as traits
->same diff. b/w trait
and state as Allport thought
Illustrative state incl.:
Role:
Role: what situation we’re in/place/status in society/etc.
->just like state – it has a transient influence
->b/h
is more linked to situational infl. than to triats
Same person:
Trait theory: the five-factor model; applications and evaluation of trait approaches to personality
-to fins out more about traits: questionnaires about traits and have factor-analysis to see which personality traits go together
->made the 5 trait factors
-studies show that they are stable into adulthood
| Trait scales | Low | High |
| Neuroticism:
(N)
-Adjustments vs. emotional
instability -identifies people prone to
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Extraversion: (E)
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Openness: (O)
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| Agreeableness
(A)
-Quality of one’s interpersonal orientation along a continuum from compassion to antagonism in thoughts/feelings/actions |
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Conscientiousness (C)-Individual’s degree of organization/persistence |
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-Bipolar questions to find
out traits of individuals (see p. 259)
Measures:
-big-five model – seem to be somewhat cross-cultural, though hard to prove, since the translating b/w languages makes it problematic
Cognitive – info-processing approach to personality
->how we organize/understand things in our head about reality/experiences
-way to deal w/ massive amount of info
Rules of categorization:
->lower
level categorizations are more specific, but less economical
categorization of situations
-also a hierarchy of situations
i.e. special social situation ->subcategory:
going on a date
Situation scripts:
a category of b/h for each category of situations
-some situations are highly scripted –i.e. going to a restaurant
->some are not –i.e. informal meeting
w/ friends
Individual situation and associated feelings/ b/h
-there are things that are more individual in its categorization, i.e. hostile/tender/hostile situations
->each person categorizes things diff.
Categories for people
-When categorizing/judging
people we’ve just met: Sometimes, we use neutral traits (i.e. tall);
other times, we use value-based terms (hostile/nice/etc.)
-->we need organization
since we meet so many people and it could be overwhelming to remember
specifics about people w/o an overlying scheme
-As seen in chapter 8:
Five Factor Model of personality traits (which might be used to categorize people)
-each category has subcategories
-->the
more specific subcategory, the more specific response!
-Yet, ind. varies in:
-->similar to what Kelly
was doing (chapter 11 –personal construct theory)
the self and self-schema
Markus: people categorize themselves just like anything else:
-->called
self-schema
Example of self-scheme:
-One might have an independent-dependant self-schema –which others don’t
-->another
might have a guilty-innocent self-scheme
-some see part of themselves
as changeable vs. others who see this trait as fixed
-the self-schema helps us process stuff about ourselves:
[Info-processing approach]
-self-schema also infl. even things like sexual b/h
-->people
w/ higher ‘Sexual self-schema’ enjoyed sex more
-->there is a ‘family of selves’ instead of one self
-->sometimes,
it is hard to compare b/w selves
Men Vs. Women |
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-with time, not only processing
error but also motivation/emotion was taken into account when relating
to errors.
2 motives regarding the self has been note:
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Characteristics of 2 personality theories | |
| Traditional personality theory | Cognitive/info-processing theory |
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| 6) self = unitary concept |
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Lazarus:= psychological stress = cognitions relating to his environment
Stress: when
a person sees the circumstances as taxing/exceeding his resources/dangerous
to well-being
2 stages of cognitive appraisal
->some are infl. by personality traits/others by situational forces
->less
psych/physiological health
-dev. by Meichenbaum
->way to reduce stress through cognitive approach
->individual
under stress = self-reducing/interfering thoughts
->those cognitions have a built in self-confirmatory component
->events perceived/recalled in a negative
way
Procedure to:
i.e:. ‘it is such an effort to do anything’
->person
might not be aware of them ot their negative effects
-coping techniques taught include
Possible techniques taught include
->making the above techniques easier
Cognitive/info-processing view:
-psychopathology = b/c unrealistic/maladaptive
cognitions
Therapy: change them
to better ones
Ellis’ rational-emotive therapy –(RET)
-psych difficulties stem from irrational beliefs or statements we make for ourselves
Irrational beliefs: ‘if now is good –bad must be coming up’
Faulty reasoning: ‘I failed on this effort – therefore I must suck’
Dysfunctional expectancies: ‘/if something will go wrong, it will go wrong to me’
Negative self-view: ‘others are better than me’
Maladaptive attribution: ‘When I win = luck; when I lose: it is me’
Memory distortions: ‘life’s always been bad’
Maladaptive attribution: ‘all I am thinking about is how horrible it will be if I’ll fail’
-‘Don’t
worry about it –you can’t do anything anyways’
Self-defeating strategies:
‘I’ll reject others b/f they’ll reject me – to see if they still
like me’
->today,
more focus on overt b/g than Ellis describes
Beck: cognitive therapy for depression
Psychological depression stems from:
Also: depressed uses faulty info-processing
-->i.e.
magnifying small stuff
Research on faulty cognitions
Depressed people: more:
Questions stilled to be answered:
Evidence: faulty cognitions = latent (dormant) –only manifest under stress
-->therefore,
relapse of depression in other situations of stress
Basic view: each problem: associated w/ type of thinking
Summery: good self-efficacy in social/intellectual, but nit in creative thought/emotional relationship
Increase in:
-->also: some focus on unconscious motives/emotions
-->not necessarily sexual
-->not necessarily basic-drives-oriented as Freud thought.
-->what people are trying to do i.e. goals/personal projects/life tasks
-->also
emphasis on motivational stuff: i.e. self-guides/possible selves
Traditional personality theory |
Cognitive info-processing theory |
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| -Personality = pleasure seeking | Personality = info seeking |